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Do Pilots Get Free Flights? An Airline Pilot Tells All!


Being a contract pilot it requires me to travel a lot and I would always see pilots sitting in the cabin with the other passengers. I always wondered why they were there and if they get to fly for free.

Most pilots get free flights within their own airline or with sister airlines. Sometimes a small fee is required to cover airport fees, especially if family members are flying too. Pilots can also be put on free standby tickets or be given a free regular passenger ticket.

Besides pilots actually getting paid for flights, there are also some more benefits to being a pilot and quite a handful of ways for a pilot to fly as a passenger. Some of them are free of charge and for some of them, a small fee has to be paid to cover the taxes of the ticket and the airport fees.

Let us see some of them and I’ll explain what everything is and how it actually works for me on a daily basis.

How Do Pilots Get To Fly For Free?

Pilots get to fly for free when ‘Deadheading’ to an airport to report for duty or when flying home after duty. Pilots also fly for free when ‘Jumpseating’. A pilot in uniform shows up to a gate with their ID and is granted access to fly either in the cabin or the spare seat in the cockpit. The Jumpseat.

What is Pilot Jumpseating or Supernumerary?

This is a favorite way of traveling and is actually for free if you are a pilot. Jumpseating or Supernameracy (SNY) both have the same meaning and the procedure is exactly the same for both.

Jumpseating or SNY is when a pilot shows up to the gate in their uniform with their company ID card and documents. Pretty much like going there to operate the flight. The gate agent will ask for the crew code and some documents like the ID and passport.

The gate agent will insert some information on the LID (Load Information Document) of the flight so that the pilots operating the flight are aware that there is a crew member onboard.

Jumpseating is the best way to get a free flight if you are a pilot as it is the easiest and fastest way to get in the aircraft. Furthermore, I know from a pilot’s experience, that when you operate a flight and you have a Jumpseating pilot onboard, you actually feel a bit safer knowing that there is someone on board that can help in any kind of emergency situation.

Pros of Jumpseating

– Jumpseating is the easiest way for a pilot to travel and there is always an available seat. If there is no seat in the cabin, the pilot is allowed to be seated in the cockpit in the “jumpseat” which is located between the two main pilot seats. Hence the term “Jumpseating”.

The ‘Jumpseat’ – Slides Out From Behind The Captains Seat

If the seat in the flight deck is taken – perhaps by another pilot jump seating – the pilot is allowed to seat with the flight attendants in the back galley of the aircraft.

⁃ A Jumpseating pilot does not have to be at the gate 1 hour earlier as this process takes maximum 5 minutes. This means that even 5 minutes before the door closure and pushback time, the pilot can actually get in the aircraft.

⁃ The pilot can carry as many bags and luggage as they want. Jumpseating is considered by some companies as active duty so there are no limitations on what you can carry on board. Water, food, liquids, and other items are allowed through the security check if operating as a crew and not as a passenger.

⁃ A Jumpseating pilot can exit the airport on arrival by the crew exit and save a lot of time skipping lines at passport control or at the immigration checkpoint.


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Cons of Jumpseating

Jumpseating for free is only allowed on the pilot’s own airline. A Standby ticket would be issued to travel on another airline.

⁃ Being in uniform and not traveling in normal clothes can be extremely uncomfortable in comparison with normal everyday clothes, especially when it comes to long flights.

⁃ Passenger interaction. For some pilots, it isn’t a problem but a lot of pilots I know get annoyed by passengers asking questions about the flight, the aircraft, and general aviation stuff that only a pilot knows. Truth is it is usually the company’s policy to not talk about the operation and the airline with passengers in any way possible.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* A Pilot’s Flight Bag – What is in there?
* Can Pilots Go To The Bathroom?

What is Pilot Deadheading?

Deadheading is another well-known term for this matter. Again free but with some differences compared to Jumpseating.
Deadheading is considered active duty and is included in the duty hours of the pilot at the end of the month and year. When the company needs the pilot in a different place to operate a flight they “make” the pilot jumpseat for free.


The difference between Deadheading and Jumpseating is that deadheading is for the benefit of the company while Jumpseating is for the benefit of the pilot.


Do Pilot’s Families Fly For Free?

Family members of a pilot don’t always get to fly for free, but they do get heavily discounted tickets or tickets with only a small fee. Family members can be issued either a Standby Ticket where they fly if there is room or a Confirmed Ticket where they are guaranteed a seat.

The way to get tickets for family and friends is the same as described above in the Standby – Confirmed tickets section.

Again, Standby tickets are unlimited but confirmed tickets are available for a limited amount. This number differs from company to company but some airlines provide crew members with a limited amount of charge-free tickets for each pilot’s family.

Can Pilots Fly Free On Any Airline?

Pilots only get to fly for free within their own airline or sister airlines. When flying on other airlines they will have to pay a small fee and it will almost always be a standby ticket where they can only fly if there is a free seat. If the flight is full they have to wait for the next flight.

If the company is a member of an airline alliance then the pilot can get tickets at a discounted price for him and his family but those tickets are mostly standby tickets and the confirmed tickets option is not available.


To find out more about Airline Alliances please check out our article here:

Airline Alliances 101: What They Are & Why Airlines Join Them?


How Do Pilots Get Discounted Flights?

To fly for cheap pilots have to apply for a ticket from their employer. They will then be given either a ‘Standby’ ticket where they fly if there is room, or get given a ‘Confirmed’ ticket which guarantees a seat on a particular flight. Pilots pay a small fee to cover charges.

When it comes to tickets for their staff and crew every airline has the roughly the same policy. This inludes two categories of tickets:

  1. Standby Tickets
  2. Confirmed Tickets

Stand-By Tickets

Standby tickets are those that a pilot can buy paying a very small amount of money to cover some of the taxes and the airport fees. These tickets are called standby because if the flight is overbooked and every revenue passenger arrives, there won’t be any seats available for the pilot or any crew member with a standby ticket. Most of the time there are always 1 or 2 free seats so it should not be a problem.

Standby tickets are available for every flight and there is no limit on how many each pilot can get.

Confirmed Tickets

Confirmed tickets work pretty much in the same manner as the standby tickets but in this case, the fee paid is slightly higher. The big difference, as you can imagine is that there is an available seat for the pilot that bought the ticket and the pilot is going to be included in the seating plan.

Pilots usually get a limited amount of confirmed tickets and most of them are outside of the busy periods of the year.

Do Pilots Get Discounts or Benefits?

Pilots are considered airport staff and the company ID card or the Airport ID card is sufficient for a pilot to get discounts on the duty-free store, or food and drinks at the airport cafeterias and restaurants. This discount varies between 10% and as much as 70%.

One of the biggest benefits pilots get is discounts in hotels and Airbnb. Most companies are offering discounts on hotels for their staff members using the company ID card at the check-in of the hotel. Usually, there’s a dedicated website within the airline that staff members have access to, and can book hotel rooms pretty much anywhere in the world and in the places the airline flies to and from.

Most of these hotels are in the vicinity or close vicinity of the airport so the pilot can have easy access to the airport.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* What Do Pilots Do Between Flights? A Pilot Explains
* Can Passengers Visit the Airplane Cockpit?

How Do Pilot’s Know When Turbulence is Ahead?


We have all been sat on an airplane when all of a sudden the pilot turns on the ‘Seat Belt’ light and comes over the passenger address system to advise us of possible upcoming turbulence. The question is though, how do they know there is turbulence ahead? We can’t see it like we can an approaching rainstorm, so how do they when turbulence is coming?

Pilots have to predict the location of turbulence so they use a combination of their experience, looking at the weather ahead, an aircraft-mounted weather radar, weather reports, satellite images, and by far the most accurate; reports from other pilots who have just experienced any turbulence.

Although flying through turbulence can be a scary experience for a passenger it’s not as dangerous as you might think. Turbulence is just a normal part of flying and there are various ways by which pilots can foresee turbulence and can mitigate its effects on the aircraft.

Air turbulence is a phenomenon that happens when the air around an aircraft becomes unstable, and the airflow and pressure change rapidly. This can happen due to wind, weather conditions, terrain, or even the presence of other aircraft in the vicinity. The result is unpredictable movement and changes in the altitude and attitude of the aircraft.

Because of these sudden, rapid, and unannounced changes in the aircraft, can cause discomfort to the passengers and crew, and depending on its timing can make flying difficult for the pilots. 

The effects of turbulence depend on how severe it is. The more severe the turbulence is, the more likely it will cause physical discomfort to passengers and crew members. Light turbulence may only make you feel like you’re floating in your seat while heavy turbulence can make you feel like you’re being tossed around like a rag doll inside the cabin.

However, pilots are experienced in handling such turbulence, the aircraft are designed to handle way more turbulence than experienced so all the pilots have to do is to try to fly the aircraft out of the turbulent zone as quickly as possible or not even fly into it in the first place.

What Do Pilots Use To Predict Turbulence?

To predict turbulence pilot, use some or all of the following methods:

  • Aircraft Weather Radar
  • Ground-Based Weather Station Reports
  • Pre-Flight Briefings
  • PIREPs
  • Reporting Software
  • Imagery and Overlays

Depending on the sophistication of the aircraft, the pilot may not have the luxury of some of these tools in the cockpit so they have to try and predict and plan the flight as best as possible while on the ground.

For pilots flying in small aircraft, especially for pleasure, the entire flight may be canceled due to extensive storm activity in the area. Large airplanes are much better suited to handle turbulence as they have better means to detect turbulence but also have the means to fly around or above the weather cell.

For those of us that fly close to the earth’s surface, being on the ground is far better than being in the air wishing you were on the ground! – Trust Me! I made that mistake only once very early in my career!

Not a Good Time To Go Flying – Time to grab a coffee!

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Aircraft Weather Radar

Most modern large passenger aircraft have a variety of equipment and instruments to assess the weather conditions around the aircraft. Aircraft radar is one of the primary tools pilots will use while airborne as it can provide a wealth of weather information, including wind speed and direction, precipitation levels and types, pressure readings, and much more, depending on the system’s level of sophistication.

This data is invaluable for the pilot/s to help in making informed decisions while flying through or approaching inclement weather.

Aircraft Nose-Mounted Weather Radar – Source: tataquax

Aircraft weather radar uses Super High-Frequency radio waves using 1-microsecond pulses. They are transmitted in the forward direction from a radar antenna which is installed in the nose cone of the aircraft.

The radar antenna is mounted on gimbals and positioned by the inertial reference system (IRS) to adjust automatically with the shift in aircraft attitude and direction. The pilot can also change the sweep and angle of the signal beam so that the radar is directed correctly at the weather target.

The transceiver of the radar switches the antenna to transmit and receive signal pulses at a high frequency. This cycle repeats continuously and the radar receiver unit maps a two-dimensional visual image on a display screen in the cockpit about the weather conditions ahead.  

The weather radar picks up the density of precipitation. Green is the weakest and red is the strongest. This picture allows the pilot to see where the cells containing the strongest rainfall are. Strong rainfall is usually associated with thunderstorms which are known to have incredibly strong turbulence around and within them.

Pilots can navigate their way around and between the cells as seen in the radar image above.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* Aviation Weather Information: How do Pilots Get It?
* Flying Into The Sun – How Do Pilots Deal With It?

Ground Weather Stations

As the aircraft flies on its route, there are dozens of ground weather stations situated along their route.  Some stations are equipped with radar and other metrological sensors to collect weather information in the area. This information is transmitted to the pilot through voice and data communication systems.

Based on this data, weather forecasters and software can report real-time and forecasted weather so pilots can get a good estimate if they are going to encounter turbulence in their flight path.

Clear Air & Mountain Wave Turbulence Forcast at 35,000 feet

For those of us that don’t have the luxury of real-time imagery in the cockpit, we have to look at the applicable weather reports before lift-off and make a decision as to the routing or not go at all. This is called pre-flight planning and is a big part of a flight being successful.

Pre-flight Briefing

A pre-flight briefing is a required safety protocol that takes place before the takeoff of any aircraft. The pilot is informed about the weather conditions that the aircraft may encounter in its flight path and weather conditions both at the departure and destination airport.

The pilot will then brief the rest of the crew as to if and when they expect turbulence so the cabin crew can ensure they are not in the middle of serving drinks or meals at the time of the forecasted turbulence.

PIREPS

A Pilot Report (PIREP) is information on meteorological phenomena encountered by a pilot in flight. These reports are passed on to other pilots and air traffic control when a pilot experiences something that others should be aware of, or to provide warnings to other pilots flying in the same vicinity.

All pilots are encouraged to give PIREPs when their aircraft encounters unusual or sudden severe weather conditions.

Examples of a PIREP could be:

  • When weather conditions on an IFR approach differ from the latest observation
  • A pilot detects wind shear, especially during take-offs and landings
  • A pilot experiences unforecast Clear Air Turbulence (More on this later)
  • etc

PIREPS can contain information on any number of factors that may affect a flight such as snow, icing, hail, severe turbulence, dust, fog, wind shear, and clear air turbulence, and are by far the most accurate of all because they are timely reports from pilots who have just experienced it.

IATA Turbulence Aware

In 2018, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the trade association of commercial airlines, established a turbulence early warning network called Turbulence Aware.  

It is an international, worldwide data exchange program. Turbulence Aware receives the existing weather data from participating airlines, performs its quality checks, anonymizes it, and provides the data back to all airlines.

This then allows the airline’s route planners to adjust routes before flight or allows pilots to alter their plan during flight.

Satellite Weather Overlays

For pilots of small and private aircraft, they are now able to get real-time weather data overlaid onto their cockpit navigation displays.

With a subscription to Sirius or XM Satellite and using an compatible aircraft avionics display the pilot can see the weather around them.

Information like this then allows the pilots to make timely decisions about where they suspect turbulence to be and adjust their route accordingly.

What is Clear Air Turbulence?

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is an erratic movement of air in a cloudless sky. Pilots are unable to see it which when encountered can violently shake the aircraft causing discomfort and hazards to occupants unbuckled from their seats. Most Clear Air Turbulence happens between 20,000 feet – 45,000 feet.

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is one of the most dangerous types of weather conditions because it happens without warning, is unpredictable, but luckily in most cases lasts only for a short period.

CAT has become a very serious operational factor in flight operations at all levels and especially in jet traffic flying over 15,000 feet. Normally in such cases, the weather appears clear without any clouds, rain, or snow, so the weather radar may not detect them and the pilots are often the most reliable source of CAT warnings received as PIREPs.

CAT conditions must be reported by pilots if they encounter them. They are required to log the time and location, and it is sent to an FAA-approved ground station with which they are in radio contact to help other pilots following either prepare or alter their route.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* How Do Pilots See in Clouds? A Pilot Tells All!
* Birds: How Do Pilots Avoid Them?

The Different Types of Airplanes – All Explained Here!


If you have ever been to an airshow, fly-in, or aviation museum the vast variety of airplanes is truly staggering. Even though I have been an aviation enthusiast my entire life I still find new airplane types that draw my curiosity.

Airplanes types can be split up into military and civilian containing passenger transport airplanes, cargo, aerobatic, combat fighters, bombers, training & pleasure aircraft, bi-planes & tri-planes, multi-role airplanes, and then purpose-built airplanes like the Airbus Beluga or Nasa’s Shuttle Carrier.

There are so many different types of airplanes, so in this article, we are going to break down certain groups and see what type of airplanes they hold.

To begin with, airplanes can easily be classified into 2 groups: 

  1. Military-Use Airplanes
  2. Commercial-Use Airplanes 

Military-Use Airplanes

No matter the country, most military forces will have several types of airplanes to suit their needs. Below are the most common types of military airplanes:

1. Fighter Jets

General Dynamics f-16 Fighting Falcon

These are airplanes used for the purpose of striking enemy targets on the ground, at sea, and in the air. Traditionally these types of airplanes were used in close-quarter ‘Dog Fights’ but with modern technology, the distance required to engage between the aircraft and its target has dramatically increased.

These airplanes are highly maneuverable and are by far the most technologically advanced type of airplane in the world. They are usually equipped with machine guns, missiles, and or bombs.

Types of Fighter Jet Airplanes:
(All aircraft links to Wikipedia)

2. Bomber Airplanes

Boeing B-52G Stratofortress Bomber

Bomber airplanes have been the backbone of most military forces since the dawn of aviation. Tasked with carrying large amounts of ordinance deep into enemy territory they are usually the first wave of attack to neutralize enemy ground-based defenses.

Being large and relatively slow, the bombers are purposely designed to fly high and far, often requiring multiple air-to-air refuels during their missions. With the advent of stealth technology, many latest-generation bombers are now completely undetectable to all but the most sophisticated enemy radar detection systems.

Types of Bomber Airplanes:

3. Transport Airplanes 

Boeing C-17 Globemaster III

When a military force needs to get troops and equipment onto the ground they turn to their transport airplanes. Designed to be highly configurable and lift incredibly heavy payloads over very long distances these airplanes allow its military commanders to set up bases anywhere in the world.

They are primarily used for initial insertion and then ongoing resupply. These behemoths of the sky are the logistics backbone. In times of natural disaster, they can also be used to quickly bring help, aid, and support to ravaged parts of the world.

Types of Transport Airplanes:

4. Surveillance Airplanes

Lockheed U2 Reconnaissance Airplane

The best way to know what an enemy is up to is to watch them. The constant game of cat and mouse is dominated by high-flying aircraft that give their military commanders an undetected view of their enemy.

Although most reconnaissance is now undertaken by drones and satellites you can still find a few purpose-designed surveillance aircraft in the skies. Whether they are launched off a ship or from another continent these airplanes play a vital role in providing intelligence to their military commanders.

Types of Surveillance Airplanes:

5. Training Airplanes

Embraer EMB 134 Super Tucano

To learn to fly for the military it needs to have a selection of easy-to-fly training aircraft. All pilots begin with their basic training and then progress up to more specialized aircraft depending if they are selected to fly fast jets, bombers, cargo, or helicopters.

All pilots start off like their civilian counterparts, learning the basics of flight in very simple, piston-powered, single-engine airplanes. They then transition into multi-engine, jet-engine, and high-performance aircraft while passing many flight and written examinations along the way.

Types of Training Airplanes:

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* Why Do Airplanes Have Different Shaped Wings?
* Narrowbody & Widebody Airplanes – What’s the difference?


Civilian-Use Airplanes

Just like the military, the civilian world also requires a wide variety of airplane types to provide services for customers. Whether the airplane is moving hundreds of people across a continent, or battling a wildfire approach a neighborhood, a specific type of airplane is required:

1. Commercial Passenger Airplanes 

Boeing 747-8 Jumbo Jet

Bar far the most well-known airplane type the world over. Dominated by Boeing and Airbus, the commercial passenger airplane market has allowed the world to become a much smaller place. From quick inter-city hops to 16-hour trans-pacific hauls, there is a commercial passenger plane to fit every route.

Types of Commercial Passenger Airplanes:

2. Business and Private Airplanes

Gulfstream G550

When time is money there is no better or more economical way to travel than via a private jet. Whether the passengers are a wealthy family or a gathering of company executives, the ‘Biz Jet’ market has seen rapid growth over the last few decades.

With Light Jets that seat only a few passengers, up to a full Boeing 747 VVIP airplane, the only limiting factor to the airplane’s size and luxury is the size of the owner’s budget.

Types of Business/Private Airplanes:


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3. Commercial Cargo Airplanes

Boeing 747 Freighter

When packages and items are needed across the globe within days the only way to accomplish this is by cargo airplane. With over 35% of the world’s commerce moved by cargo airplane every year the volume of shipped goods is unimaginable!

Whether the airplane is packed full of individual packages or contains an entire aircraft fuselage like the Airbus Beluga at the very top of this article, these airplanes allow society to have what they want, when they want.

Types of Cargo Airplanes:

4. Training Airplanes

Cessna 182

When learning to fly, a stable, forgiving, and easy-to-master airplane is key for any new pilot. Leading the way in training and personal aircraft for decades is Cessna. Their range of airplanes allows for flight schools to select the most bare-bones basic airframe, to advanced, glass cockpit IFR-capable aircraft.

In recent decades many more manufacturers have joined the training aircraft market with some incredibly affordable airplanes making the joy of learning to fly cheaper so that more people can fulfill their dream of becoming a pilot.

Types of Training Airplanes:

5. Utility/Aerial Work Airplanes

Air Tractor Model 502 Crop Spraying Airplanes

When airplanes are needed to complete a specific task they have usually been purposely designed to do it well. Whether crop spraying, fighting wildfires, towing banners down a beach, or allowing parachutists to exit from 15,000ft, there is an airplane for the job.

Many airplanes get modified from popular airframes to enable the task to either be completed safer or with more efficiency. When these types of airplanes are put to work they need to be as efficient as possible.

Types of Aerial Work Airplanes:

6. Amphibious Airplanes

Bombardier CL-415 Water Bomber

Amphibious airplanes are those that can use either water or land as their primary operating surface. These types of airplanes will have boat-like hull or floats instead of wheels that allow them to safely land on water. When required to land on tarmac, retractable wheels will deploy to raise the floats or fuselage off the ground.

This type of airplane is commonly used for personal and commercial use where there is a lot of lakes or ocean, but some of the most iconic amphibious airplanes are the ones used for fighting wildfires like the CL-415 above.

Based at land-based airports, these aircraft will be flown at speed onto a body of water to ‘Scoop’ up water. Once full, the pilots will then deliver that water to a wildfire via controllable doors on the underside of the aircraft.

Types of Amphibious Airplanes:

7. Aerobatic Airplanes

Extra 330 Aerobatic Airplane

Airplanes specially rated for carrying out aerobatic maneuvers such as barrel rolls, loops, chandelles, and prolonged inverted flight. These airplanes are light, strong, made to withstand high “G” forces and are highly maneuverable.

Most aerobatic airplanes are designed purely for this task with pressurized fuel and oil systems to be able to operate in any orientation and some are purposely aerodynamically unstable to allow the pilots to put them into incredible maneuvers for the delight of the crowd.

Most are also fitted with a smoke kit that injects dye into the exhaust gas of the engine as it leaves the aircraft adding to the ‘Wow’ factor during their displays.

Types of Aerobatic Airplanes:

Types of Airplane Based on Number of Wings

Aircraft can also be classed by their wing type. There are 4 main types:

1. Flying Wing

Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit

When the entire aircraft is made up of just the wing. The engines, cockpit, and main fuselage are all incorporated into the wing providing a very unique aircraft. The absence of a tail and rudder makes the flight controls of these aircraft incredibly complex and as such are primarily limited to the military due to the intense research, design, and manufacturing costs. This type of airplane are a marvel of engineering!

The main advantage of this type of design is its stealth capabilities making it practically invisible to enemy radar.

2. Monoplane

An Airbus A380

Airplanes having only one pair of wings are termed as monoplanes. All modern airplanes have this single pair of wings configuration and the wings can be mounted either below or above the fuselage. It is the most common type of airplane design as it provides the most amount of lift, for the least amount of drag and cost.

2. Bi-Plane

Pitts S-2C Special Aerobatic Airplane

Airplanes with 2 sets of wings, one over the top of the fuselage and another under the bottom are termed as bi-planes. Bi-planes were first developed during the early twentieth century and used extensively during WWI. As technology advanced, the bi-plane became an obsolete design but with modern design & materials, they have seen a comeback in the aerobatic display sector.

The bi-plane design allows for a large wing surface area in a small footprint.

4. Tri-Plane

Sopwith Triplane

The very earliest designs of airplanes needed to create a large wing surface area to produce enough lift. The infancy of aerodynamic wing design was still not fully understood so stacking 3 wings on top of one another was the best way to keep the wings small enough to remain strong when in flight.

These were also the main combat aircraft during WWI, with a propellor-drive machine gun mounted above the engine and geared to ensure no bullet would fire through the propellor.


If you would like to know more about aircraft based on Engine Type please see this article:

What are the Different Types of Aircraft Engine?


How Are Airplanes Tested & Certified?


It is common knowledge that traveling by airplane is by far the safest form of transport on the planet. The number of people transported compared to the number of people injured is incredible and this is all down to the decades of aircraft design and testing evolution.

Aircraft undergo testing from every component during initial design, to module testing & aircraft certification testing. Tests can incorporate stress, fatigue, noise, vibration, efficiency, handling, & emergencies in test rigs & software simulation, static ground tests, and finally flight tests.

To bring a new aircraft design to market can take decades due to the incredible number of components and systems that need not only to be designed but tested and certified. In this article, I want to give you just a very slight glimpse into a few of the thousands of tests that go into every aircraft before passengers are allowed to embark.

Airplane Testing & Certification is Split into 6 Main Categories:

  1. Individual Component Testing
  2. Sub-Assembly or Module Testing
  3. Static Test Rig Testing
  4. Ground Testing
  5. Flight Testing
  6. Internal & External Certification

How Are Aircraft Components Tested?

Aircraft components undergo initial testing using complex simulation software during design. Components then get prototyped and subjected to real-world operating conditions to test them to extremes. If a component fails it’s sent back for re-design, while successful components will be certified.

Next time you are on an aircraft just take a look at every single thing you can see. Each one of those components has had to undergo a rigorous design and testing program to become certified for use in that aircraft.

A UV Dye Penetration Test to Inspect For Cracks Invisible to the Human Eye are Common at Component Testing

From the material it is made out of, to its shape, to its manufacturing process, to its coloration, to its interaction with its surrounding components. Every part has to be engineered to not only do its job, but be as light, durable, and cheap as possible.

No matter if it’s a single rivet to a ridiculously precise turbine blade in the engine’s compressor, each component has to pass a battery of tests before being certified for installation. The series of tests to become certified will also have been purposely designed for each component to ensure its job is conducted flawlessly for decades.

Tests can range from material fatigue, vibration fatigue, resistance to fire or saltwater, noise creation, or a whole host of tests. Many of the individual components on an airplane are manufactured by external vendors to the airplane company.

It is up to the suppliers to pass the standards and certifications set forth by not only the aircraft manufacturer, but also the country’s aviation governing body like the FAA, or EASA for example. Without passing certification for a particular country that component may not be certified to operate in that country.

Most countries piggyback off the certification for the US (FAA) and Europe (EASA) as these are the most strict certification standards.

Once a component has passed, it will then be certified to be installed into a Module or Sub-Assembly.

How Are Airplane Sub-Assemblies Tested?

Aircraft sub-assemblies are made up of many components. Sub-assemblies are tested to ensure each part within that assembly works with one another under the most extremes of operating conditions. Wear, stress, corrosion resistance, mechanical & electrical interference are all some of the common tests.

Each sub-assembly on an airplane has to also ensure it completes the job it was designed for within its surroundings. For example:

How well do the overhead lockers work when overloaded with weight and subjected to extreme turbulence? How well does the oxygen system work if there is a fire halfway down the cargo compartment? How well do the cockpit window wipers work when the airplane has been sitting in -40°F for 3 hours?

Again, each sub-assembly or module will have been designed and tested off-site by an external supplier which will have purpose-designed tests to ensure their product exceeds the airplane manufacturers’ standards.

As the sub-assemblies or modules become larger they are usually subjected to large test rigs that can simulate extreme operating conditions.


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What Are Airplane Test Rig Tests?

Airplane test rigs are purpose-built devices used to allow the aircraft part or module to operate under normal to extreme conditions while safely subjecting it to various tests, procedures, and data gathering. Test rigs allow for safe testing while sometimes operating the part to destruction.

By far the most well-known aircraft test rigs are the engine test and wing-flex test cells. These are one of the hundreds of devices constructed to test their subjects either to destruction or to simulate service life fatigue and stress for any number of tests.

Delta Airline’s Engine Test Cell – Source: Delta News Hub

Bird strikes, for example, can cause engines to fail due to component destruction or explosion. In addition, it can cause damage to the airframe of airliners approximated to cost $2 billion annually in repairs in the US alone.

A bird strike simulator often called a ‘Chicken Gun’ is employed to simulate this crucial test. It fires dead chickens at around 400mph into the engine and at the cockpit windshield to simulate the response if it would have encountered a flock of live geese in the air. Engines and windows need to withstand these impact forces to pass certification.

These kinds of tests can only be accomplished safely by using a test rig.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* How Do Airplanes Handle Lightning Strikes?
* Why are Unpainted Aircraft Green or Yellow?

How Are Airplanes Ground Tested?

Airplane ground tests are conducted on airplanes that are almost fully complete. Many tests will include how the aircraft handles while taxiing and taking off, to cold soaking in -40°F hangers, to testing evacuation, fire, and emergency systems. Sensor and test engineers gather data to prove the tests.

Once the airplane is almost completely assembled the majority of the ground testing can begin. These tests are designed to test the aircraft as a whole to see how all its systems work with one another in some of the most stressful and extreme operational conditions.

Here are some of the most common ground tests:

  • Taxi & Ground Handling
  • Runway Handling
  • Hot & Cold Environmental Extremes
  • Internal & External Acoustics
  • Cabin Pressurization Cycles
  • Passenger Comfort and Environment
  • Cabin Layout & Emergency Drills
  • Lightning Strikes
  • Smoke and Fire
  • Evacuation
  • Electronic & Atmospheric Interference

In addition to these tests, the pilots will begin testing the airplane on the runway for brake tests, tire friction, aborted takeoff, deep snow, deep sand, and deep water. For example:

During a simulated aborted takeoff test, a plane is equipped with worn-out brake pads and brought to take-off speed on the runway before the take-off is aborted and the plane is stopped under its hardest braking capability. This kind of test is used to gather data on when brake pads must be changed.

The engineers will also gather telemetry data on the stress parts of the airplane undergo during this extreme braking.

Ground testing can take months or years to complete for the design of a new aircraft. Usually, several aircraft will reach the ground testing phase and be fitted out with tens of thousands of sensors and dozens of test engineers to scrutinize every aspect of the airplane.

This helps to run many tests concurrently to help speed up the ground testing stage.

A Boeing 787 Undergoing Extreme Cold Ground Testing

These aircraft will be exposed to extreme hot, cold, and humid climactic conditions to ensure everything works, or if not, what needs to be changed or does a procedure need adjusting. Not only do ground tests prove the aircraft is capable but it is also a time when many of the future maintenance procedures and component lifespans are determined ready for when the aircraft goes for its initial certification.

As these tests become complete the airplane nears its final series of tests – Flight Tests

How Are Airplanes Flight Tested?

Airplane flight tests are conducted by company test pilots with test engineers monitoring data from sensors mounted all over the aircraft. Tests can include handling, flight envelope development, procedural development, emergencies, noise, vibration, efficiency, speeds, and altitude limitation proving.

The flight tests are the final hurdle in getting an aircraft ready for not only initial certification but also customer delivery.

For initial certification, the aircraft will mainly be stripped of its passenger seating and replaced with a team of flight test engineers with dozens of powerful computers to monitor thousands of additional sensors temporarily mounted over the entire aircraft.

A Typical Airplane Test Flight Interior – Source: H. Michael Miley

During a pre-designed flight test program the pilots will fly the aircraft in set configurations to allow the test engineers to gather data. The pilots will also perform sequences of maneuvers to push the aircraft to its design limitations to ensure it remains safe.

These flight tests can include:

  • Stall Recovery
  • Maximum Altitude
  • Endurance
  • Maximum Flight Control Deflections
  • Engine Fuel Flows
  • Cabin Pressurizations
  • Flight Envelope Controllability
  • Noise and Vibration Analysis
  • Avionics Testing
  • Take-off and Landing Profiles
  • Emergency Descents and Climbs

The data gathered during all these tests allow the documentation team to create the aircraft’s flight manual that stipulates the limitations of the aircraft, its most efficient ways to operate, the normal and emergency operating procedures and checklists etc.

The flight test program can last many months, sometimes years with hundreds to thousands of flight hours flown, usually using several test aircraft. Every possible scenario that cannot be fully simulated on the ground will be looked at and refined during these tests.

Once the aircraft has completed its flight test programs it will be fitted out with its full interior and teams of employees will undergo flight-route testing and analysis of the cabin. Seats will be tested, the galley will be tested, and emergency scenarios will be tested – All to simulate the airplane full of passengers.

Again, the findings of these flights will help finalize the procedures to be used by cabin crews when the airplane enters service.

The other type of flight test is the ‘Pre-Delivery’ flight test. When an airplane rolls off the production line it will be flown by the company test pilots following a set test program. This is much smaller than the initial certification program.

The pre-delivery test is designed to ensure every part of the aircraft works to the required standard and is perfect before it is delivered. Test engineers will crawl over the cabin during the flight checking for vibrations or squeaks, quality technicians will be testing every system in the cabin to ensure everything is ready for example.

Upon landing and final sign-off from the test pilots and quality control department, the airplane will be scheduled for delivery.

How Are Aircraft Certified?

Aircraft are certified after meeting an intense testing and development program that is developed with consultation between the aircraft manufacturer & the world’s largest aviation regulators like the FAA and EASA. Proving manuals & data are submitted & test pilots and engineers then certify the design.

For a completely new aircraft design like the Airbus A380 for example, certification for production is a mammoth task. The aircraft manufacturer has to prove the aircraft is safe in pretty much every aspect you can think of from the way in which the flight computers control the aircraft, to the way the toilets flush.

The certification process actually begins during the early stages of the aircraft design. Certain milestones have to be submitted and approved before the aircraft’s development and manufacturing can continue. It is similar to building a house.

A Boeing 787 Under Production – Source: Jetstar Airways

Designs have to be approved, then at various parts of the build, there will be inspections and tests which need to be passed. The aircraft certification is just the same.

For final certification, the FAA for example, will audit all of the aircraft’s flight manuals, technical service manuals, maintenance manuals, checklists, and procedures. Their own test pilots will put the aircraft through a program of both ground and flight tests to ensure the data provided by the manufacturer is not false.

Once the governing body (FAA) is happy their certification requirements are met they will issue a certificate to begin production of the aircraft and it will be given an aircraft type designation like B747, A330 for example.

Upon certification, the manufacturer will have to ensure it maintains its production standards and quality to maintain its certification. The FAA will also do unannounced audits to ensure the manufacturer remains in compliance at all times.

Learn More
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* Narrowbody & Widebody Airplanes – What’s the difference?

A Pilot’s Flight Bag – What is in there?


A pilot’s flight bag is one of those things that a pilot cannot be without. No matter if the person is flying a commercial airliner or a small aircraft out in the remote wilderness. A pilot’s flight bag has everything close by that a pilot would need both before, during, and after the flight.

An airline pilot’s flight bag contains identification, company documents, sunglasses, headset, additional clothes, water, snacks, notepads, and a company iPad filled with all the aviation charts and procedures. A bush pilot’s flight bag may also have a portable GPS and small survival and first aid kits.

This article is quite unique as it has two pilots’ perspectives. Firstly we will discuss what is in an airline pilot’s flight bag of what is in my bag and then we will take a look at what’s in a bush pilot’s flight bag!

Just like a ladies’ purse, a pilot’s flight bag can seem endless with the amount of stuff they have in there. Everything in there though has a purpose so to find out exactly what’s inside these bags and why please read on…

What’s Inside an Airline Pilot’s Flight Bag?

Documentation

This is split into two categories:

Personal Documentation:

Every pilot needs to carry with them their Pilot’s License, passport, medical certificate, and any type of visa if they have to overnight in any place not covered by international law (Israel for example).

Company Documentation:

The company’s Identification card which is sometimes put on a lanyard around the pilot’s neck and a notebook so they can write down things to make life easier while flying (fuel figures, ATC frequencies, passenger numbers, etc.).

Before the advent of the iPad, many of the company documents were in paper format and would have to be carried. Flight plans, Load sheets, weather data, schedules, and so forth. This easily doubled the size of the pilot’s flight bag. Now it’s much lighter!

Headset

The next important thing that can be found in a pilot’s bag is the Headset. Different types of headsets can be found, but the two most common the world over are the:

  1. Bose A20 – Find them Here at Amazon.com
  2. Bose Pro Flight – Find them Here at Amazon.com

These are the most comfortable headsets for long-distance flights. Both have had extensive pilot input into their design and the pedigree of Bose is the reason why you will find these on every flight deck. Just like any tool, they are not cheap, but when you are wearing them for hours on end you soon forget about the cost.

It is for these reasons that both most airline and bush pilots use these headsets.

An Airline Pilot’s Bose Pro Flight Pilot Headset

Together with the headset, usually pilots carry batteries to use in case the batteries for the headset die during flight. The headsets have noise canceling capabilities that run off the batteries and once it stops working mid-flight I can tell you it feels so loud without it!

These types of headsets usually have Bluetooth so you can listen to music or watch movies in a long flight. Some pilots also carry spare headset parts in case anything breaks that might need replacing.

Food and Water

Good food and lots of water are always present in a pilot’s bag. Like every job, pilots need to be properly hydrated and not have distractions from an empty stomach. Not every airline offers food to pilots and flight attendants!

Most low-cost airlines require pilots to bring their own food and some of them, even water. Supplied or not, it’s always a good idea to have some kind of food in the bag, even if that is just a snack. Water should always be in a pilot’s bag no matter whether the airline supplies it or not.

Coffee – Waking up at 4 am to operate any kind of flight usually means most pilots will have this as part of their primary flight possessions.

Clothes

Clothes should be brought on any flight even if that is a short one. Lots of times pilots may find themselves in an unplanned layover somewhere with nothing to wear but their uniform and the hotel’s towels.

A change of underwear, pants, and a shirt makes for a much more comfortable evening when going out for a quick meal. Not every pilot wants to stay a pilot in their downtime!

Electronic Flight Bag

Every airline in the world issues some kind of iPad to their pilots. For most operators, the iPad contains all airport charts, performance tools for take-off and landing, aircraft flight manuals, company standard operating procedures, company operating manuals, and any company-specific documentation required.

Besides the company-issued iPad, pilots may carry their own iPad containing movies, books, or whatever else they prefer to make their life easier on the flight deck during long flights.

Entertainment

Believe it or not, pilots carry even board games or books with them to pass some time while flying those long 8 hours crossing the ocean. This may sound odd, but as pilots, we are still constantly monitoring all the instrumentation and the avionics instantly lets the pilots know if something changes or faults.

Toiletries

For those unplanned overnight layovers, the thought of not having deodorant, or a toothbrush just sends shivers down most pilots’ spines! All pilots will carry a small toiletry ‘Basics’ pack in their pilot bag. This way they ALWAYS have something to freshen up.

In addition, one of the downsides of everyday flying at altitudes more than 20,000 feet is that the air becomes dry. The warm cabin air we all breathe and sit in is provided by the engines, so a good quality face moisturizing cream and a hand cream should always be in there.

Sunscreen is also a must. Once above the clouds, a pilot can be sat facing the sun for hours on end, every working day. Even though the cockpit windows do have a UV-reduction coating it is still advisable for pilots to apply a small amount of sunscreen to their faces each day.

Disinfecting wipes is also a good idea to clean yourself up before and after eating or for just cleaning the instruments and the controls of the aircraft.

The last thing is sunglasses, no matter what! To find out why pilots need sunglasses please take a read of this article:

Do All Pilots Need Sunglasses? : Yes, Find Out Why!

High Visibility Vest

All pilots need to carry their High-Visibility vest with them at all times they are on airport grounds and in the aircraft maneuvering area.

High-vis vests are mandatory while outside of the aircraft or terminal to allow them to be easily seen by ground staff and pilots.

Airports are very busy places and not everyone is paying attention so making themselves easy to see is a must to avoid an accident.

Both the Captain or Co-Pilot can be tasked with doing the pre-flight visual inspection of the aircraft exterior.

Additional Items

Anything else that might be important for the pilot, might be cigarettes, gum, medications, reading glasses, specific beverages, or snacks. You get the idea! Random stuff that makes their life easier.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* Pilot Logbooks – What Are They & Why You Need One?
* Before Taking Off – What Do Pilots Check?

Do Pilots Buy Their Own Flight Bags?

Most airlines will issue their pilots with a flight bag and suitcase. These may have been manufactured with the airline’s branding and may be mandatory. Many times pilots will purchase their own flight bags that suit their personal preference and usage provided the airline allows it.

A pilot’s bag is considered a part of the company uniform so for some airlines it is mandatory to be carrying one with you at all times when on duty. Usually, the bag is provided by the airline company together with the pilot uniform with guidance on when and where both the uniform and bag must be worn.

Usually, airlines provide their pilots with a suitcase as well for long layovers but it’s not mandatory to carry it with you, unlike the pilot’s bag.

If you want to see a great selection of some of the most popular bags used by pilots all over the world please check out the collection Here in the Pilot Teacher Amazon Store


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What’s Inside a Bush Pilot’s Flight Bag?

A bush pilot’s flight bag will usually contain a flashlight, bug spray, multi-tool, survival kit, satellite phone, portable GPS, toilet roll, and sometimes a first-aid kit. Being out in the wilderness the pilot has to be prepared for an overnight stay and to be as comfortable as possible.

Bush pilots very rarely have the comforts of an airport lounge or terminal to work out of or wait. Once away from the main hanger most bush pilots are out in the wilderness with their customers and as such need to have a few items to help.

Bush pilots mostly spend their days working out in the bush and return to the hangar at night or they can be based out of camps or hotels. All commercially operated aircraft must have on board a small first-aid kit, a small survival kit, and most also contain a satellite phone and tracking system and a GPS, but most pilots I know will also pack their own gear too.

A Typical Mining Exploration Camp – Plywood Sheds with Tarp Roofs!

GPS

Depending on the company the aircraft may come with an aviation GPS installed already but if not, the pilot needs to be prepared with their own GPS. This is mainly used for navigating to the locations the customers have specified. Many times the customer may send a file of GPS coordinates that they wish to visit during their job. The pilot can then enter these in ahead of time so is ready for the first day with the customer.

The portable GPS however is now becoming obsolete as most pilots have their own iPad.

iPad

Just like the airline pilot, the bush pilot will use the iPad for all of their personal and company documentation as well as a GPS App like Boeing’s Foreflight or Garmin’s Pilot.

The moving map technology which also allows customers to send map overlays makes the iPad a powerful tool in the cockpit.

For example, this was an updated map of a wildfire showing the perimeter and all of the helipads, camps, and rain gauges.

This was airdropped to the pilots for that morning and it was instantly on all the pilot’s iPads for that day’s fire attack.

The iPad is a very powerful and helpful tool in the bush/utility sector.

Here is my iPad Setup in the Airbus AS350 Astar

If you wish to know what kind of iPad mounting system I use check out my review video Here.

Phone Battery Pack & Solar Charger (Sometimes)

For those days when the pilot has to fly their customers to a location and then sit and wait for them all day, watching movies on their iPhone/iPad can soon chew up their battery. Portable battery packs provide an easy way to charge them back up.

You can find the Battery Pack I use Here at Amazon.com

In the summer a solar phone charger is also a handy tool to have. They can easily be packed away, are light, and a great addition/alternative to a battery pack.

Find a Great Solar Charger Here at Amazon.com

Laptop

Being based in remote camps and away from home, most bush pilots will have their laptop with them. My current laptop has seen more of the country than my wife has and in fact, many of the blog posts you read here on Pilot Teacher were written from the backseat of a helicopter while sat waiting for my customers.

Many pilots will keep their digital logbooks and company documents backed up on their laptop.

Learn More
Try These Articles:
* How Do Airplanes Handle Lightning Strikes?
* How Do Airplanes Not Freeze?

Book

When staring at a screen is done you can regularly find a pilot sitting in their portable camping chair, or hammock reading a book. Pilot crew houses are full of novels and are a great way to take a book, and leave a book.

When sitting for hours on end for the weather to improve or for their customers to finish a book is a must.

Survival Kit

All commercial aircraft by law have to contain a survival kit. But many pilots will pack a small survival kit that they will keep in their flight suits or in a small ‘Bug-Out’ bag by their seat. In the event of an accident or the pilot needs to evacuate the aircraft quickly, an easy-to-grab survival kit may be the only thing they have to survive.

If you wish to see some great little kits please check out the Pilot Teacher Amazon Store Here

Small Sleeping Bag

When sleeping in a camp a small lightweight, compact sleeping bag and inflatable pillow are usually thrown into the pilot bag! Here is mine and I can tell you that it has paid for itself many times over. Some of the places a pilot is expected to sleep are not for the squeamish!

The sleeping bag I use can be found Here at Amazon.com
The Inflatable Pillow I use can be found Here at Amazon.com

Although not always needed, their small size makes them easy to throw into the bag when you think there might be a chance of a camp stay.

First-Aid Kit

Usually, a pilot will also have a small first aid kit packed away with their survival kit. Again, most aircraft will have a first aid kit onboard but having a separate, small kit gives great piece of mind. It’s surprising how many pilots cut and burn themselves while out working in the bush and building a small campfire!

A small kit like This One from Amazon.com is perfect

Flashlight

Before every flight of the day or after the last flight of the day the aircraft needs to have a nose-to-tail visual inspection by the pilot. When darkness surrounds the pilot a flashlight and usually a headlamp are first to come out of the bag.

In addition to inspecting the aircraft is looking inside drums of fuel stored at remote fuel caches. The only way to ensure the fuel is not contaminated with water or sediment is to peer through the cap and see it contents.

This is the Flashlight I have used for years. You can find it Here at Amazon.com
The Head Lamp I use can also be found Here at Amazon.com

Multi-Tool

It will be very rare to find a bush pilot without a multi-tool strapped to their waste or in their flight bag. Being out in the wilderness there are times when small repairs have to be made to the aircraft or equipment to keep it working. A Multi-tool serves this purpose incredibly well.

You can find a great selection of Multi-tools Here at Amazon.com

Toilet Roll and Hand wipes

As much as this gross’s out my wife the fact that a bush pilot spends all day out in the bush means there comes a time when they need to use the bush ‘Facilities’! A bush pilot soon learns to pack their own toilet paper and sanitizing hand wipes! – it’s the simple things in life that make the biggest difference!

Water and Food

Unlike airline pilots, bush pilots do not have the luxury of flight attendants bringing them food or picking up a snack from a terminal food court! Bush pilots will always have plenty of food and water on them to last the day, in fact, this usually comes in its own cooler because it would not fit in the flight bag!

During the summer I always hang a CamelBak off the back of my seat (See Very First Pic), especially when fighting wildfires. Hot summers, beating sun, and 3 hour long flights can soon lead to dehydration if not careful. The Camelbak allows for easy sips between water drops.

In addition, a LifeStraw is a great device to pack in a bag. If water runs out this ingenious device allows you to safely suck water straight out of any water source.

You can find the LifeStraw Here at Amazon.com

Suncream & Sunglasses

Just like airline pilots, every pilot needs sunglasses and sunscreen. Have a look at the picture below and see how much of the aircraft are windows!

Water Sampling from Ground Wells Surrounding a Proposed Coal Mine

Protection from the sun is paramount, especially over decades of exposure. Both good-quality sunglasses and sunscreen will always be found in any pilot’s bag.

Here is a great selection of Pilot Sunglasses at the Pilot Teacher Amazon Store

Bug Spray & Bug Hat

One of the worst aspects of being a bush pilot has to be the bugs! Mosquitos, Horse Flies, Black Flies, No-See-Ums, I swear they are all there to make a pilot’s life miserable while out in the bush. I’m lucky as I can sit in the aircraft with all the windows and vents shut to keep them at bay, but when a pilot needs to work outside bug spray and a bug hat are the only means to survive.

Over the years of working with hundreds of talented field workers, the best bug spray/cream they all wear is This One Here at Amazon.

Satellite Tracker

Operating in remote areas brings with it a whole set of challenges if a problem occurs or the pilot or their aircraft becomes disabled. Many bush aircraft have satellite tracking systems fitted into them so the company can track their aircraft, but for smaller companies, this is not the case.

Over the last few years, both I and many of my customers have invested in our own sat tracking devices so that we can connect with each other while out in the field and give out loved ones peace of mind should an issue occur.

The two most common devices in a bush pilot’s bag are either the Spot or ZoLeo. For a few hundred dollars these can not only send messages for help but the ZoLeo allows messaging through an app on a smartphone, even without cell service.

Clothes

When flying on the airlines the bush pilots’ belongings are at the mercy of the airport’s ground handling staff. We all know how bags get misplaced so most pilots will pack the majority of their flight gear (minus the sharps and liquid) as hand luggage.

To ensure the pilot is ready to go the moment they arrive many will have a couple of pairs of underwear and a very small travel toiletry kit in the bag in case their main baggage doesn’t arrive.

Camera Equipment

If you are like me and are also a YouTube Content Creator then the camera gear must travel too! This is a rare sight, and I’m one of the very few pilots who carry ANY camera with them that is not their cell phone, but to do so I had to find a way to incorporate all that gear with my flight gear.

If you wish to find out how I did it please check out this video:

What is a Good Pilot Bag?

A pilot’s bag is any kind of bag that would resemble something between a backpack and a suitcase. Think of it as a small suitcase with wheels with just enough space for what you would need on a flight or at a layover.

The most common pilot bags on the interior are usually separated into a big compartment with some smaller ones to fit things like an iPad, clothes, food, and any type of documentation you need to have with you while operating a flight.

It also has to be in a comfortable size that fits inside the flight deck, usually by each pilot’s seat. This is where a pilot keeps their flight bag in the cockpit of the Boeing 737, which unfortunately is not the spaciest flight deck.

With that in mind, a big suitcase – one that you would use to travel on vacation for example – would not be able to fit at all.

Most pilots look for several things in a flight bag:

  • Enough space to easily store all their equipment
  • Easy access to the most commonly used items – Like headset
  • Quality material
  • Comfortable to carry
  • Not too big, but big enough
  • For airlines – Wheels and Retractable handle

Some pilots require a lot of gear to be carried, while some pilots require minimal gear to be carried. Pilots of small, private aircraft may only need a simple headset bag to also store their pilot certificate in.

The good thing is there is such a wide variety of quality pilot bags available that every pilot can find one to suit them.

If you want to see a great selection of some of the most popular bags used by pilots all over the world please check out the collection Here in the Pilot Teacher Amazon Store

Learn More
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* Can Pilots Go To The Bathroom?
* How Do Pilots Avoid Jet Lag?

What is an Aircraft Transponder & What Does it Do?


As a passenger have you ever wondered how air traffic control can monitor and differentiate between hundreds of different aircraft all flying in the same airspace at any given time, especially when the clouds are low or it is nighttime and they are unable to see them?

The answer is a small electronic device that is fitted into all commercial and most private aircraft. It is called a Transponder that is fitted into the aircraft.

I remember hearing the word ‘Transponder’ when I first began learning to fly and I had no idea what it was so this is what I teach students.

What is a Transponder?

A transponder is a device that responds to each pass of an airport’s Radar. It tells the radar system the registration # of the aircraft, the altitude it is at, and with each sweep of the radar, updates the aircraft’s position & if it’s changing altitude. It can also issue alerts to ATC from the pilot.

The term transponder is short for “Transmitter – Responder”. It is an electronic device fitted in the aircraft that transmits a 4-digit “squawk code” upon interrogation by the ATC radar each time the rotating radar signal sweeps past the aircraft. This code contains information about the aircraft such as call sign, altitude, groundspeed, etc. This information is then displayed on the air traffic controller’s radar screen. 

A Radar Screen
A Typical Air Traffic Controllers Radar Screen – Source: Steve Parker

Each aircraft equipped with a transponder allow the air traffic controllers (ATC) to assign details to the aircraft on its screen:

For example on the screen above:

In the top left of the image there is flight BMAZLJ:

This aircraft will have been assigned a 4-digit squawk code (More on this later) when the pilots first checked in with Air traffic control before being pushed back from the gate. The pilots enter the code into their transponder. The air traffic controller assigned the aircraft flight number to that 4-digit code:

Eg:
Squawk Code of 3257, then gets entered into the ATC computer as ‘BMAZLJ

This makes it really easy to see where that flight is at any time. At the time the photograph was taken flight BMAZLJ is heading Northwest bound, at 19,000 feet with a ground speed of 350.2 knots. The diamond is the aircraft and the tail represents its last few positions to show its direction of flight.

The transponder system is made up of the Transponder Unit which is the panel mounted in the cockpit. This houses all of the electronics. It also requires an antenna to be mounted on the outside of the fuselage to intercept and transmit radio signals.

Transponders also play a vital role in the TCAS (Traffic Collision And Avoidance System). The TCAS system is installed in modern aircraft and helps prevent midair conflicts by issuing aural and visual alerts to pilots. TCAS is solely dependent on the transponder system.

TCAS acts like a mini radar and sends out interrogation signals from the aircraft. When another aircraft is in the area its transponder responds to this interrogation and sends its data to the requesting aircraft. The TCAS system then decodes this information and places it on a screen in the cockpit for the pilots to see:

TCAS Screen Shot
An Aircraft TCAS Screen

TCAS Symbol Key:

  • White Outlined Triangle – Your aircraft
  • Red Square – RA – Aircraft 1,300 ft above and climbing in front of you
  • Yellow Circle – TA – Aircraft to your left, 200 ft above and climbing with you in the same direction
  • Blue Filled Diamond – Proximate Traffic – Aircraft to your left 1,200 ft below and climbing with you in the same direction
  • Blue Outlined Diamond – Other Traffic – Aircraft ahead 3,000ft above and descending towards you

There are basically 2 versions of TCAS:

One which just shows the traffic advisory (TA), it displays the other aircraft’s data, shows the position of other aircraft, and leaves it to the pilot to decide to what action to take to maintain separation.

A newer version is the one that detects the traffic and gives traffic advisory (TA) and when crucial, also provides resolution advisory (RA). By resolution advisory, I mean that it verbally announces to the pilot to go left/right/climb/descend and these advisories have priority over the air traffic controller’s command.

In other words, whenever a situation arises where ATC asks the pilot to go left, and TCAS gives a RA to go right, the pilot will have to go right. This helps pilots avoid each other in the event of a mistake by an air traffic controller.

If the transponder is switched off, faulty for any reason, or does not have one fitted at all, the aircraft will be invisible to other aircraft in the vicinity. 

One such incident resulted in a midair collision between an Embraer private jet and a Boeing 737 over Brazil. The crew of the Embraer private jet did not realize that for some reason their transponder was turned off and as a result, they were not visible as a potential threat to other aircraft around them.

This resulted in a collision with a Boeing 737. The Embraer private jet managed to land at a military field where the occupants were detained, unfortunately, the Boeing 737 crashed in the Amazon jungle with none of the passengers or crew surviving the crash.    


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How Does A Transponder Work?

A transponder works by passing digital information to any radar signal that it receives. The transponder takes flight data from the aircraft sensors and sends it with each interrogation from a radar, whether that be a ground-based or aircraft-based radar. Transponders only pass data outward.

Before we delve further into the intricacies of transponders, we must understand the types of radars first. Radar stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging.

Radar can be divided into two types:

  • Primary
  • Secondary

Primary Radars transmit radio waves that bounce back after hitting an object, the time taken for the wave to return is used to calculate the distance of the object from the radar. The radar antenna constantly rotates through 360° and the direction the radar antenna is pointing when the signal is received back is the location the aircraft is in from the radar. This is what places ‘The Diamond’ icon on the radar controllers screen.

However, it uses antiquated technology and has drawbacks.

Primary radar cannot decipher what it sees. it just picks up any object in the sky, therefore anything like flocks of birds or really heavy rain cells can create a radar return.

Primary Radar is the large, lower antenna in this photo. The antenna mounted above it is the Secondary Radar antenna.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) uses electronic pulses to interrogate the target aircraft. It is the SSR that gathers the flight data from the aircraft to display with the aircraft target on the air traffic controllers’ screen.

These ground-based radars and antennae like you see in the photo are slowly being updated and replaced. Typical radars now look like this:

So now the aircraft side…

For Commercial Airliners:

Prior to pushback, when the aircraft is at the gate, the pilots request a clearance known as an IFR clearance. As part of this clearance instruction, the air traffic controller will assign the pilot a 4-digit code known as the Squawk Code. The pilot will type this code into their transponder ready for departure (PRESET BOX):

An Integrated Transponder
A Transponder Integrated into a Complex Avionics Suite

For Helicopters and Small Aircraft:

Before the pilot begins to move from their hanger they too must obtain permission from air traffic control. During this initial contact, the air traffic controller MAY issue the pilot to input a certain squawk code or the pilot will fly under the generic code of 1200.

This code is used for all pilots flying under Visual Flight Rules.

A Garmin GTX327 Transponder
A Basic, Small Aircraft Transponder

Each aircraft within that air traffic controllers sector is assigned a unique squawk code so that each aircraft can be identified easily on departure. During flight as the aircraft passes into a different airspace sector, the new air traffic controller looking after that sector may assign the aircraft a new squawk code to which the pilot must enter.


If you would like more information on VFR and IFR flight rules please read this:

What is VFR & IFR? What are their differences?


Transponders have 3 mode capabilities depending on their age and sophistication:

1. Mode A: 

This is the most basic type of transponder system. These transponders only transmit the aircraft’s squawk code to the radar screen. They are most commonly found in old, private aircraft.

2. Mode C:

Mode C capability allows the radar controller to see the aircraft’s pressure altitude information along with its squawk code. These were by far the most common in small commercial and privately-owned pleasure aircraft.

Cessna 182
A Mode C Transponder Will Be Common in These Small Aircraft.

3. Mode S: 

Mode S capability is now found on all commercial transport aircraft and private aircraft that wish to fly within controlled airspace. It is the most advanced mode out of all the three modes available. These systems support other systems such as TCAS and ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast).  

ADS-B is the latest surveillance technology that is replacing Primary and Secondary Radar. It is satellite-based and far more accurate and provides more capabilities between aircraft and controllers.

It is now a legal requirement for aircraft to have an ADS-B capable transponder when operating within Class A, B, C, or E airspace.

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When is a Transponder Used or Required?

An aircraft must be fitted with and have it turned on when operating above 10,000 feet above mean sea level but not within 2,500 feet above the ground, like in mountainous terrain. Also, within 30nm of a Class B airspace when below 10,000ft MSL and within all Class C airspace when below 10,000ft MSL.

You would think that it would be law requiring every aircraft to have and use a transponder but that is not the case, although I wish it was.

Transponders are an expensive item and for owners who like to fly around the wilderness and stay away from populated areas then the need to have one fitted is not worth the cost. For aircraft regularly operating in and out of airports there are a few rules:

With Mode S ADS-B in full effect now here are the requirements for when a transponder is required:

Uncontrolled Airspace: No Transponder required

Class A Airspace: ADS-B Transponder

Class B Airspace: ADS-B Transponder when flying within 30nm up to 10,000 feet above Mean Sea Level (MSL)

Class C Airspace: ADS-B Transponder when flying within up to 10,000 feet MSL

Class D Airspace: Mode C or ADS-B Transponder when flying within

Class E Airspace: ADS-B Transponder

Normally, transponders are switched on before entering the active runway and switched to standby mode once vacating the runway after landing. However, with the passage of time, airports have started utilizing technologies such as surface movement radar and guidance which requires that the transponder be switched on once the pushback commences.

This technology allows ground controllers to track aircraft as they taxi. This has been a great step forward in improving safety as some of the world’s largest airports can be a maze to navigate around and when fog reduces pilot visibility to near zero!

What are Squawk Codes?

Squawk codes are 4-digit codes assigned to a pilot from an air traffic controller. They allow the controller to see the aircraft on their radar screen along with information about their position. Each aircraft gets assigned a unique squawk code to allow easy identification on a busy radar screen.

There are two types of squawk code:

  1. Controller-Assigned Codes
  2. Pre-Determined Codes

Controller-Assigned Codes

Squawk codes that are assigned by an air traffic controller are unique 4-digit codes that are assigned to each individual aircraft. Two aircraft cannot have the same squawk code within the same airspace. These squawk codes are usually assigned with the initial clearance either before taking off or entering the airspace.

Pre-Determined Codes

The FAA and ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation) developed a series of pre-determined squawk codes that can be used not only in the US but also worldwide. Some of them help bring immediate attention to aircraft if there becomes an issue on board.

CodeUse
1000Aircraft Operating under IFR ADS-B
1200Aircraft Operating under VFR – Visual Flight Rules
1255Aircraft Operating Within Designated Wildfire Operations
1277Aircraft Operating Within Search & Rescue Operations
7500Aircraft has been Hijacked
7600Radio Failure
7700Emergency

Whenever any of the codes marked in red are typed into the transponder by the pilot it brings up an instant alert on the air traffic controller’s radar screen to alert them that the aircraft needs assistance.

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